In the 1930s, endless discussions took place within the Armed Forces General Staff on whether or not to mechanize the large units of the army, based on whether human courage was the most important factor in ground operations or, as far as the Air Force was concerned, whether to develop the bombing doctrine advocated since 1921 by Giulio Douhet in his book Command of the Air, and the resulting aircraft models, or the assault aviation doctrine advocated by Amedeo Mecozzi in various articles and in his book Guerra agli inermi e aviazione d'assalto (War on the Defenseless and Assault Aviation).
Thus, in June 1940, Italy entered the war with equipment and vehicles that were largely obsolete and outdated or unsuitable for the new type of warfare that was emerging on the battlefields.
In terms of individual weaponry, the infantry was still equipped with the Carcano model 91 rifle with a rotating and sliding bolt. In the early 1920s, the conversion of the old 91 rifles (6.5 mm caliber) into 91/24 muskets began in order to recover the many rifles left over from World War I that were lying in the arsenals. After the experience of the colonial wars, it was realized that 6.5 mm caliber ammunition, if it did not hit vital parts, would have insufficient stopping power on the battlefield. A new 7.35 x 51 mm caliber ammunition was therefore developed and adopted. Again for economic reasons, the old 91 and 91/24 rifles continued to be recovered, shortening the barrels from 780 to 538 mm, adopting the 7.35 mm caliber, and making some mechanical modifications. This led to the creation of the Model 91/38 musket and its variants. When Italy entered the war, due to various production and logistical problems, 7.35 mm ammunition was still difficult to find, so the 6.5 caliber was adopted again. In June 1940, the Italian Army consisted of 78 divisions, including 59 infantry divisions, 3 divisions of the Voluntary Militia for National Security, 2 Libyan colonial divisions, five Alpine divisions (Taurinense, Baltea, Tridentina, Cuneense, and Pusteria), three armored divisions (Centauro, Ariete, and Littorio), and two motorized divisions (Trieste and Trento). Only slightly less than half of the divisions were fully equipped and staffed.
Italy's backwardness was even more evident in the field of submachine guns or automatic muskets, as they were then called. Given that the only nation that entered the war with a semi-automatic rifle was the United States with the Garand, Italy began distributing the Beretta 1938/A and 1938/42 muskets in very limited numbers and to special units only in 1942. The other belligerent nations had developed and supplied their soldiers with various models of automatic weapons. In 1942, the US Army and Air Force distributed the Thompson models M1928M1 and M1928M1A1, while in 1943 they began distributing the M3 Grease Gun. The German army was equipped with: from 1942, the FG42 submachine gun, the individual weapon of paratroopers; from the start of the war, the MP38 submachine gun, and, from 1940, the MP40 model; from 1943, the first model of the MP43 assault rifle, which was renamed Sturmgewehr 44 or, more briefly, Stg44 in 1944. It can be said that the MAB (acronym for Moschetto Automatico Beretta, or Beretta Automatic Musket) was used more in the second half of the conflict, after September 8, by republicans and partisans.The situation was not much better in the field of medium and heavy automatic weapons. The 6.5 mm caliber Breda 30 was mechanically well-made, but its low tolerance, which made it very expensive to produce, created operational problems, requiring both the weapon and the ammunition to be carefully cleaned and lubricated. The Breda 37 heavy machine gun, on the other hand, was a weapon that was adequate for its time, but it had two flaws: it was heavy, weighing almost 20 kg in addition to the tripod, which weighed almost 19 kg, and it was fed by 20-round "magazines" instead of belts like the machine guns of all the other belligerent armies. Its advantages were its gas-operated mechanism, air cooling, a good muzzle velocity of 800 m/s, and adequate 8 mm caliber ammunition.
Italian artillery, which had been among the most modern in the First World War, underwent no upgrades between the two wars.
By the time Italy entered the war, the accumulated delay was such that it continued throughout the conflict.
A typical example is in the field of anti-tank guns, where the 47/32 mm model 1939 was unable to penetrate the armor of enemy medium and heavy tanks.
The interwar period saw the development of a new specialization: anti-aircraft artillery, whose school was founded in 1921, while the industry began to develop guns suitable for the task and the related accessory equipment for listening, illumination, and telemetry in order to allow the acquisition of the target and the aiming of the guns.
The first anti-aircraft gun saw the light in 1934 and was the Ansaldo 75/46. At the same time, the first firing control center was created, which allowed the calculation of firing data. In 1939, the 90/53 was delivered, proving to be reliable, powerful, and effective. Like the German 88 mm, it was also used as an anti-tank weapon. There were too many targets to protect in the territory; the lack of radar development and Allied air superiority thwarted the defensive efforts of cities and industries in the territory.
At the beginning of the war, the armored forces were the most backward both technologically and strategically due to long- us discussions between those who supported the doctrine of a specific specialty and independent, highly mobile units within the Army capable of maneuvering autonomously in the face of the enemy; on the other hand, the old theories persisted, which later proved to be largely obsolete, according to which the tank was exclusively for supporting the infantry. The result of these discussions led, in Italy, to the construction of exclusively light support tanks without taking into consideration the possibility of large-scale battles in open terrain that could have armored forces as the main actors. The new doctrine was dictated by the Germans' use of armored forces from the beginning of World War II, inaugurating the diamond-shaped assaults of the Blitzkrieg, which pushed deep behind enemy lines and surprised all the strategists of all the armies, many of whom were still thinking in terms of the tactical criteria of World War I.
More attention was paid to the motorization of artillery, logistics, and troop transport units. 
In 1936, the first mechanized unit was created. At the beginning of the conflict, the three armored divisions were mainly equipped with CV33 and CV35 fast tanks intended for reconnaissance and infantry support. These were followed by the L6 (6-ton light tank) with a rotating turret. The first M11/39 medium tanks made a brief appearance on the eve of the war, but given their inadequacy, the M13/40 was immediately developed, followed by the M14/41 and M15/42. The only heavy tank produced was the 26-ton P40 with a 75 mm gun, but it was no match for the 31-ton American Sherman medium tank. The situation was better with self-propelled artillery such as the M40 with a 75/18 gun and the M41 with a 90/53 gun, which was used mainly as an anti-tank weapon, albeit limited in engine power and insufficient ammunition supply. The M42 with a 105/25 mm gun was decidedly more effective. In terms of quantity, Italian industry produced just over 3,000 tanks, compared to 64,000 by the Germans and 200,000 by the Allies.
Essentially, the vehicles supplied to the army at the time of entry into the war were insufficient in both quality and quantity. The production of more technologically advanced vehicles was delayed and limited in number due to the economic conditions of war.
THE ROYAL AIR FORCE
The Royal Air Force was the Italian armed force that, at the beginning of the war, had the most credit in relation to the successes of its aircraft in the years prior to World War II: 33 of the 84 records recognized by the International Aeronautical Federation were held by Italy, followed by Germany with 15, the United States with 11, and England with 2. When Italy entered the war, one might have expected Italian aircraft to be superior in quality, but in reality, things were quite different. In Italy, the air force became an independent armed force on March 28, 1923, and its first name was Arma Azzurra (Blue Army). There were major differences between the supporters of the doctrine of strategic bombing of cities advocated by Giulio Douhet and that of "assault aviation" advocated by Amedeo Mecozzi, which favored surprise attacks aimed at specific targets, neglecting adjacent areas. This dispute delayed the development of aviation in an irreparable way and profoundly influenced pre-war production.
In the second half of 1939, there were just over 2,250 aircraft available, of which only 1,370 were considered modern and only 838 were bombers or fighters. At the outbreak of war, the number rose to just over 3,250, of which less than 1,800 could be considered operational.
The old Fiat CR20 and CR30 biplane fighters, 320 CR32 aircraft, and the now obsolete CR42 were still in service. Several monoplane fighters were also in service: the Fiat G50 and Macchi MC200, designed in 1936 and entered service in 1939, and the Reggiane RE2000, which entered service in 1940. Among the bombers in service were: the Savoia Marchetti SM79 Sparviero, nicknamed "the cursed hunchback" because of its shape, designed in 1934 and entered service in 1936, it was the most widely used bomber during the war; the Fiat BR20 Cicogna, designed in 1935 and entered into service in late 1936; the CANT Z1007 Alcione and Z1011, designed in 1936 and 1935 respectively and entered into service in 1939 and 1936; in 1941, the Piaggio P108 heavy bomber, designed in 1939, entered service and was one of the few Italian aircraft that could compete with its Allied counterparts.
Most of the aircraft supplied to the ROYAL AIR FORCE were well built, but due to insufficient engine power, they often performed worse than their enemy counterparts, with top speeds 50 km/h lower. Suffice it to say that Allied bombers often managed to escape Italian fighters due to their superior speed. There were also design flaws that were not to be under : the RE2000 often succumbed in combat due to its wing tanks, and the S79 was difficult to fly in bad weather. Italian engines, built under foreign license, were all radial, dating back to the era of biplanes, and were a major disadvantage in terms of aircraft aerodynamics. The Italian industry produced four robust radial engines: Fiat with the 840 hp A74 for fighters and the 1,000 hp A80 for BR20 bombers, Alfa Romeo produced the 780 hp model 126 radial engine for the S79 and CANT Z506 seaplanes, and Piaggio supplied the BREDA 88 with the 1,000 hp XI series radial engine. The best foreign aircraft, the Me109, Spitfire, P51 Mustang, and Hurricane, were equipped with V-type inline engines with much higher power ratings: the Rolls Royce Merlin XX mounted on the Hurricane could deliver 1,300 hp with 100 octane aviation gasoline, the Merlin Mk45, fitted to the Spitfire Mk5, reached 1,470 hp, not to mention the Daimler Benz DB 605, which delivered 1,470 hp in the standard gasoline-powered version and up to 1,800 hp in the version powered by a 50/50 mixture of methanol and water. In 1940, licensed production of the German Daimler Benz DB601 engine began in Italy under the name Alfa Romeo RA1000, and its 1,175 hp benefited the MC200 and RE2000 aircraft, which entered service in 1941 as the MC202 and RE2001, bringing their speeds to 600 and 545 km/h respectively. These aircraft would probably have made a difference in the skies, but too few were produced.
Further significant delays, particularly in terms of preparation, were caused to the air and naval forces by discussions between the Air Force and the Navy regarding the use of aircraft. The comment made by Galeazzo Ciano, then Minister of Foreign Affairs, in his diary on July 13, 1940, is emblematic: The real controversy regarding naval combat is not between us and the British, but between the Air Force and the Navy. Admiral Cavagnari argues that air action was completely lacking in the first phase of the battle and that, when it finally came, it was directed against our ships, which were bombarded by S 79s for six hours."The text concludes by saying, "This morning Mussolini said that in three days he had destroyed 50% of the British forces in the Mediterranean." Despite its limitations in terms of speed and maneuverability, the Savoia Marchetti SM79 Sparviero in its torpedo bomber version was the most effective weapon in the war at sea.
Special weapons and new aircraft, including fighters equipped with the Italian version of the powerful Daimler Benz DB605A1 engine, produced by FIAT with the RA 1050 RC58 Tifone model, came into service too late. This new and powerful 1470 hp engine equipped a series of new aircraft models: the Fiat G55 Centauro, the Macchi MC205 Veltro, and the Reggiane RE2005 Sagittario. The first flights of these new aircraft took place between April and May 1942, while the first examples were sent to operational units about a year later. Only a few examples of the RE2005 were delivered, and these were destroyed in September 1943, while the rest of the 750 aircraft ordered were never built.
It is a fact, however, that Italian wartime production in the aeronautical field amounted to around 12,000 aircraft, compared to around 114,000 in Germany, 122,000 in England, and almost 300,000 in the United States of America. The above figures refer to global production and also include aircraft sold to allied nations.
The period between the two wars was characterized by the constant pursuit of naval parity with France. The failure of the 1932 Geneva Conference, which aimed to reduce or abolish armaments, led to the reconstruction, between 1933 and 1937, of the two Cavour-class battleships: the Conte di Cavour and the Giulio Cesare. In 1934, the design of two Littorio-class ships began, followed in 1937 by two Doria-class battleships: Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio. In 1938, two more Littorio-class ships were laid down, bringing the total number of battleships of this design to four: Littorio, Vittorio Veneto, Roma, and Impero.
At the end of 1939, the Regia Marina had four battleships under construction or being fitted out, two upgraded ships in service and two under construction, seven heavy cruisers and 12 light cruisers in service, 56 destroyers of various models, 26 ocean-going submarines in service, 12 under construction, and 66 coastal submarines. The months that passed before the war began allowed for the completion or launch of three Littorio-class battleships, 11 Capitani Romani-class cruisers, and 10 ocean-going submarines. The construction of units that were in the early stages of development was halted. The Regia Marina was therefore the best prepared of the armed forces. Of the four Littorio-class battleships, only three entered service: the Littorio, the Vittorio Veneto, and the Roma. These ships, except for the lack of the aforementioned firing aids, were absolutely on par with similar enemy units. Almost 240 meters long and 33 meters wide, they had a displacement of around 46,000 tons when fully loaded, while the engine provided 130,000 hp, propelling the ships to a maximum speed of 30 knots. The armament consisted of: 9 351/50 mm model 1934 guns with a range of almost 44 km, 12 152/55 mm model 1936 guns with a range of 25 km, and 4 120/40 model 1891 guns for illumination fire. For anti-aircraft defense, there were: 12 90/50 mm guns, 20 37/54 mm rapid-fire guns, 28 20/65 mm model 1935 machine guns, and 5 13.2/75 model 1931 machine guns. The armor was up to 350 mm thick on the vertical parts and in the artillery turrets. Each ship carried three reconnaissance aircraft.
After the experience of World War I, submarine construction resumed in 1925, with designers focusing on two types of vessels: coastal and ocean-going, with a displacement of less than or more than 1,000 tons, respectively. The coastal submarines, averaging around 700 tons, were intended for war in the Mediterranean ( ), while the ocean-going submarines, the smallest of which were around 1,200 tons, were intended to patrol the routes taken by enemy ships in the Atlantic Ocean. In the early years of development, experimental prototypes were launched in small series, including the Mameli, Pisani, and Balilla classes, which were used for the development of subsequent projects.
In the 1930s, production was intensified and the Italian Navy entered the war with 115 submarines divided into eight classes of coastal units and nine classes of ocean-going units, including the Saint Bon class, which was capable of sailing for up to six months without assistance. After the German occupation of France, the ocean-going units that were able to operate from the Bordeaux base, known as Betasom, were the three Calvi-class submarines, the four Balilla-class submarines, followed by those produced during the conflict, namely the four Liuzzi-class and six Marconi-class submarines. The situation of coastal submarines at the outbreak of war was good, but the evolution of anti-submarine tactics dictated the need for new units that were more technologically advanced. The Platino class was developed, essentially similar to the 600 class developed and built before the war, and finally the 48 Tritone class submarines, nine of which took to the sea before the armistice. During World War II, 128 Italian submarines were sunk.
All in all, despite some flaws, the Italian fleet had ships in service that were in step with the times: the lack of radar, the relative inaccuracy of the targeting systems, and the sometimes fearful or indecisive attitude of the commanders played strongly against them.
There were three types of assault vehicles, surface or underwater, that the Royal Navy used during World War II:
After the experience of World War I, submarine construction resumed in 1925, with designers focusing on two types of vessels: coastal and ocean-going, with a displacement of less than or more than 1,000 tons, respectively. The coastal submarines, averaging around 700 tons, were intended for war in the Mediterranean, while the ocean-going submarines, the smallest of which were around 1,200 tons, were intended to patrol the routes taken by enemy ships in the Atlantic Ocean. In the early years of development, experimental prototypes were launched in small series, including the Mameli, Pisani, and Balilla classes, which were used for the development of subsequent projects.
In the 1930s, production was intensified and the Italian Navy entered the war with 115 submarines divided into eight classes of coastal units and nine classes of ocean-going units, including the Saint Bon class, which was capable of sailing for up to six months without assistance. After the German occupation of France, the ocean-going units that were able to operate from the Bordeaux base, known as Betasom, were the three Calvi-class submarines, the four Balilla-class submarines, followed by those produced during the conflict, namely the four Liuzzi-class and six Marconi-class submarines. The situation of coastal submarines at the outbreak of war was good, but the evolution of anti-submarine tactics dictated the need for new units that were more technologically advanced. The Platino-class was developed, essentially similar to the 600 class developed and built before the war, and finally the 48 Tritone-class submarines, nine of which took to the sea before the armistice. During World War II, 128 Italian submarines were sunk.
All in all, despite some flaws, the Italian fleet had ships in service that were in step with the times: the lack of radar, the relative inaccuracy of the targeting systems, and the sometimes fearful or indecisive attitude of the commanders played strongly against them.
There were three types of assault vehicles, surface or underwater, that the Royal Navy used during World War II:
THE MAIALI
T
he SLC, or slow-speed torpedo, was designed in 1935 by Teseo Tesei and Elio Toschi. Derived from the torpedo, it retained the electric motors, which allowed it to reach a speed of just over 2 knots when submerged and about double that on the surface, and carried a charge of about 300 kg of explosives in the warhead which, once detached, was attached to the keel of the enemy ship and detonated by means of an adjustable timer. Brought close to the target by a specially equipped submarine, the "pigs" had a range of between 6 and 20 km, depending on the distance that could be covered while surfaced. In some operations, they were brought into enemy ports aboard steamships that had been specially modified with double bottoms.
The chances of emerging unscathed were significantly lower for the men in the MTM explosive boats, i.e., modified tourist motorboats carrying a charge of over 300 kg of explosives located in the bow. About 100 were produced, exceeding 30 knots in speed with a range of about 150 km. After zigzagging to avoid enemy machine-gun fire, the pilot jumped into the sea at the last moment when he was sure he had directed the boat towards the side of the enemy ship.
THE MAS
MAS, or armed torpedo boats, were already in use by the Royal Navy during the First World War. A few months after the defeat at Caporetto, the Buccari raid became famous, an action led by D'Annunzio and Luigi Rizzo to disrupt the Austro-Hungarian fleet anchored in Buccari Bay.
The MAS of the Second World War were motorboats derived from civilian technology, with a fairly flat keel suitable for calm seas.
They had a displacement of 20 or 30 tons and reached a speed of 45 knots.
Armed with torpedoes and light weapons, they relied on speed and maneuverability to get within range of enemy ships and launch their torpedoes.
By 1941, over 120 MAS class 500 boats had been produced.
In 1942, production began on actual torpedo boats with a significantly higher displacement of between 80 and 90 tons and a sharp hull that made them more seaworthy.